Title: Structured scientific writing
Course: MSc level academic and professional (information) skills > Section: Part 2. Critical reading/thinking and scientific writing

Short introduction

An academic work, like, a MSc or PhD thesis, is a written document, meant to be read by others who want to know what research was done, why it was done, how it was done, and what conclusions you drew from it. Readers can only under- stand this from the written document. If it’s not written down, it might as well not have been done; if it’s not written clearly, the reader will be confused.

The purpose of technical writing is to communicate information to the reader in a compact, clear, and efficient manner. This has three aspects:
1. Structure of the technical writing; (subject of this lesson); How do I build up my paper?
2. Argumentation; How do I formulate the point I want to make. What evidence is there to support my statements?
3. Proper use of the (English)language

Why are these aspects important? All three aspects help us communicate to the reader:

1. The structure of the document shows the main topics and in which sequence they are presented. This also implies a certain relationship between the different elements.
2. The argument gives the logic by which you reach conclusions.
3. The correct use of language (grammar, vocabulary, expression) is how the structure and logic are worked out for the reader.

Note: In some languages words and sentences are long and complicated. English technical writing is short and clear, because the goal is not to make it look nice but to transfer information. When you have written a piece of your paper, give it a a critical look. Does it tell the reader what it needs to know? Do you really need al the words that you have used? Most of the time people write too much. Very few people actually write too little.

Structured technical writing

The project report is the ‘story’ of a research project, telling readers (other scientists or ?) how they can determine what you have done and how well you have done it. Everything that you write has to have a purpose.

A good story has first of all a structure that is easy to follow, and leads the reader through the (often complex) research. Someone who has no experience with your research should be able to understand it based on your report. You can also use this structure when writing.

Note:  Think of your audience. Most of the time you will probably be writing for your peers. In that case you can use technical terms that are known in your field. Are you writing for a audience with less prior knowledge? Maybe use less complicated terms or explain the terms in a way they can understand.

For example; if you write a paper on remote sensing for a geology journal, you will have to provide an explanation of the technique of remote sensing so your readers can understand what the technique can do for a geologist. On the other hand you don't have to explain all the geologic terms.
If you write the same paper for a remote sensing journal it is the other way around. You will probably go into some detail about the processing methods, but you do not have to explain the basic remote sensing techniques, because your audience will already know that. However you do have to explain the geological application, because that is not necessarily known by this audience.

But how do you get started with writing text? There are different ways to do this, so you should just try it out en find your own style. Some people start with write everything down and bring in the structure afterwards. Others start with structuring their thoughts and then start writing. There is no wrong or right way to write your paper. Most important is that your final text is well written and structured.

Here we will show the method of 'Outlining' to help structure your paper.

Outlining

One way to get structure in a document is by outlining it before you start writing. Outlining means you work from the overall structure of the document in a hierarchical manner towards the details. All the pieces of the story will be in place before you have to write. The outline shows the inter-relation between the different pieces, in particular the order or sequence of argumentation (not yet the argument itself).

Example Structure: The Stereotypical Research Paper

So what does this look like? A simple paper or report often follows a structure like this:

1. Introduction

2. Materials & Methods

3. Results

4. Discussion

5. Conclusions

These headings are at the same level of importance. The sequence in which the headings should be read is implied – the reader cannot fully understand the results without understanding the methods that were used etc.

Expand on level

So you now have a nice basic structure for your paper. These are however still rather general. You can add a second level of structure to further extend your outlining. For example:

1. Introduction

2. Materials & Methods

    2.1 Sampling Design

    2.2 Field methods

    2.3 Data processing

    2.4 Data Analysis

3. …..

Again the order has a logic. In this case the sequence in which the methods are carried out (first design, then go to the field, then process….). This ensures that each subsection will have a logical place in your paper before you actually write anything.

The structure of materials & methods is often almost identical to the structure in the results. When you do a research with three different methods, you will also have results from three different methods.

The structure of the discussion on the other hand can be very different. A possibility is to use the research questions from your introduction as your structure. You can answer them in the sequence they were given in the introduction.

Some people find it difficult to determine which information should go into the results and which should go into the discussion. Do you give an explanation in your results section or in the discussion? Often it is hard to determine what should go were. Also opions about this differ. One viewpoint about this issue is the following:

If you only show tables, figures and statistics in your results it gives a very brief overview of your results. What do the numbers in the table mean? What is it that the figure actually shows? Is the data important or is it not important? Is it reliable or not? So explain in your results what your tables, graphs and figures mean.

A result section should look very similar no matter who writes it,  because it only shows the results that come out of your method without any personal insights or interpretation given to it. This you can do in the discussion. e.g. What do the results mean for the big picture? You can relate your results to existing knowledge and talk about possible explanations for your results and possible further research etc. So the discussion shows your personal view on the results. What possible explanation do you see for the results? Don't forget to also provide evidence and argumentation for your explanations.

Example

Results:

The figure shows that in 2019 the waterlevel was 0.5 centimeters higher than the previous years.

Discussion:

A possible explanation for the higher waterlevel can be the higher amount of rainfall last winter. Research from Mrs. A (2019) shows that there was15% more rainfall in the area than the 10 years before. Another explanation can be....

Note: Above a description is given of one viewpoint on the content of the results and the discussion. As mentioned earlier, opinions about the subject differ. So be aware of that and determine which way is best suited for your situation. Maybe your supervisors view on the subject is different than the one discussed here.

Moste of the time however you can't just limit the results to figures and tables. You have to guide your reader through your results and explain what a certain figure actually means.

Expand another level

Following the examples above you will have given a nice structure to your paper already. You can still add extra structure though.

2. Materials & Methods

    2.1 Sampling Design

    2.2 Field methods

        2.2.1 Infiltration and saturated water content

        2.2.2 Soil profile description

        2.2.3 Bulk density

    2.3 Data processing

    2.4 Data Analysis

Note: in this example the order of subsections is arbitrary! There is no priority to any of the methods. This example may not be true for your research, so you must use an appropriate sequence that works for you.

Text-processor support for outlining

 MS-Word:

In Word you can use the different heading styles to give a visible structure to your paper. Heading 1 is the first layer, heading 2 the second etc. The table of contents is derived from these headings. You can find the 'Table of Contents' button via the tab 'References'.

You can also use the ‘Outline’ mode to view your structure. Via the tab 'View' you can choose Outline you get a nice overview of the structure of your paper. You can also easily edit a section to go a level up or down in your structure.

 LaTeX:

In LaTeX you can use sectioning macros (e.g \section). The table of contents derived is from these (with \tableofcontents)

Paragraphs

In the previous section you have learned how to structure your paper, by going into more detail step by step. The last en most detailed part of your structure is a paragraph.

A paragraph is a set of sentences that work together to make one point.

“[A] unit of thought, not of length; it must be homogeneous in subject matter and sequential in treatment.” – Fowler, H.W. & Gowers, E. (1965) A dictionary of modern English usage; Oxford: Clarendon Press

A paragraph is not necessarily long, sometimes people have a pararaph of only three sentences. They open the paragraph, they write something and then they close the paragraph. If on the other hand you have written a paragraph that is half a page long or more, you might want to see if it is actually two paragraphs instead of one.

The most important thing to keep in mind however, is that a paragraph should never treat more then one specific point. This way people can easily scan your paper for the information they are looking for. If someone reads the first sentence of all the paragraphs they should be able to understand the entire paper. These sentences are the topic sentences. As implied, these sentences provide the topic for a paragraph and should give an overview of the content in that paragraph.

Each named section in the outline is made up of one or more paragraphs. You can see this paragraphs as the final level of the outline.

Sections vs. Paragraphs

What is the difference between sections and paragraphs? Sections go deeper into a topic than paragraphs. They combine several closely-related aspects of a topic, of which each paragraph makes one point. Also sections ususally require several related paragraphs, where a paragraph is always one. Make sure that the paragraphs that follow each other in a section have logical order.

There are different ideas on the maximum length of a paragraphs, and what constitutes “one” point. This are matters of style and opinion, but you should always read your writing critically and be willing to rewrite (parts of) your work to be clearer or more concise.

When you read a report or paper that is well written ask yourself; “what makes it so good?”.

Question 1: Is anything wrong with this paragraph? Could you improve it?

Example paragraph 1

“Reaching the University of Twente (UT) in Enschede from anywhere in the world is easy. The ITC faculty of the UT specializes in the application of geoinformation and earth observation to pressing societal problems, especially in developing countries. The causes of underdevelopment have been debated for years, and recently a new critique of the traditional development aid approach has been presented to the Dutch parliament for its consideration. Remote sensing has become increasingly important for rapid assessment of earth system processes that may result in natural hazards; ITC is specialized in remote sensing.”

Question: Is anything wrong with this paragraph? Could you improve it?

- Yes
Feedback: Each sentence is a good relevant sentence, but they do not fit together in a paragraph. Each sentence should have it's own paragraph, because they all have different topics. You can not find an overall topic for this paragraph as it is written now. If you start reading you think the paragraph is about accessibility, but then the next sentence is about the specilization of the ITC faculty. Tip: Outlining can help you to avoid writing paragraphs with different topics in them. If your outline is good, each topic should already have a place in the structure of your paper.
- No
Feedback: Each sentence is a good relevant sentence, but they do not fit together in a paragraph. Each sentence should have it's own paragraph, because they all have different topics. You can not find an overall topic for this paragraph as it is written now. If you start reading you think the paragraph is about accessibility, but then the next sentence is about the specilization of the ITC faculty. Tip: Outlining can help you to avoid writing paragraphs with different topics in them. If your outline is good, each topic should already have a place in the structure of your paper.

Question 2: Is anything wrong with this paragraph? Could you improve it?

Example paragraph 2

“Reaching the University of Twente (UT) in Enschede from anywhere in the world is easy. Flights from hundreds of cities all over the world arrive at Amsterdam’s Schiphol airport, from which the traveller can take a comfortable train every two hours direct to Enschede station, from early morning till almost midnight. Trains on the other half-hours require one change of trains, either in Hengelo or Amersfoort. The train takes a bit over two hours from Schiphol to Enschede. From Enschede station the ITC building of the UT is an easy five- minute walk; to the main campus of the UT on the outskirts of Enschede there is frequent bus service from the bus terminal directly in front of the train station.”

Question: Is anything wrong with this paragraph? Could you improve it?

- No
Feedback: This is a good paragraph. It start with a topic sentence so you know what the paragraph is about and explains further from there on. Remember that a topic sentence does not explain the whole paragraph, because it's not possible to put all te information in there. It should however make clear what topic the paragraph will treat. After the topic sentence you get fill in or filling sentences to give more details about the topic. Tip: Outlining can help you to avoid writing paragraphs with different topics in them. If your outline is good, each topic should already have a place in the structure of your paper.
- Yes
Feedback: This is actually a good paragraph. It start with a topic sentence so you know what the paragraph is about and explains further from there on. Remember that a topic sentence does not explain the whole paragraph, because it's not possible to put all te information in there. It should however make clear what topic the paragraph will treat. After the topic sentence you get fill in or filling sentences to give more details about the topic. Tip: Outlining can help you to avoid writing paragraphs with different topics in them. If your outline is good, each topic should already have a place in the structure of your paper.

The Topic Sentence Method

The Topic sentence method is a method for continuing the oulining into full paragraphs. Some people make great progress with this structured technique; others find it confining (you may think that it stifles your creativity). If you have a system for writing that results in rapid progress towards a properly-structured document, don’t change! If you have trouble organizing your thoughts and writing, –try it out. It may well work for you.

Writing paragraphs by topic sentences

Each paragraph has a narrowly defined topic. The topic sentence technique is often used to begin paragraphs. The idea is to write a sentence that introduces the topic of the paragraph. You leave the details of the topic to the following filling sentences in the paragraph.

Note: many readers will skim a document exactly this way, making it a useful way of communicating your main story and messages.

Example topic sentence

Adapted from Leisz et al., Agricultural Systems 85:340. Note: the original text has citations where appropriate; see below.

“In large areas of the Vietnamese uplands, swidden agriculture (also known as slash-and-burn or shifting cultivation) is thought to constitute the most serious threat to the natural environment.”

This sentence already tells us the location, lands, and problem which will be further worked out in following filling sentences.

The phrase “thought to constitute”, is key to the topic. If this were “constitutes”,what difference would it make?

Always be aware of your phrasing. 'Thought to constitute' is not a fixed statement, it implies an idea or option. This gives you the possibility to contradict it or indicate a knowlegde gap. For example you can write: ["...swidden agriculture (also known as slash-and-burn or shifting cultivation) is thought to constitute the most serious threat to the natural environment.”"]. Other research however shows that there are more possible threats, for example .....'.

If you would have said 'constitutes' instead, it would have implied a fixed statement. So you could for example write: ["...swidden agriculture (also known as slash-and-burn or shifting cultivation) constitutes the most serious threat to the natural environment.”"]. Research has shown many times that swidden agriculture is the biggest problem. We therefore should.....

Example filling sentences

1. “This viewpoint is found in many places throughout the world and across all of Southeast Asia, causing the practice to be outlawed at various times in almost every country in the region.”

2. “The Vietnamese government has subscribed to this belief and has repeatedly attempted to prohibit its practice through a major program intended to ‘sedentarize’ upland populations.”

3. “Despite heavy expenditures, this program has enjoyed little success, because it is unable to provide the swiddeners with alternative methods of earning livelihoods that are commercially viable, culturally acceptable, and ecologically sustainable.”

Note: these are not numbered in the text.

This is the continuation of the first paragraph. The entire paragraph is about 'slash-and-burn' agriculture and how it is perceived in Vietnam. It has the right length and content for a paragraph. It is 4 sentences (including the topic sentence) long and is focused on one point.

Original text, with citations

“In large areas of the uplands, swidden agriculture (also known as slash-and-burn or shifting cultivation) is thought to constitute the most serious threat to the natural environment (Fox et al., 2000; Tachibana et al., 2001). This viewpoint is found in many places throughout the world (Myers, 1993; Riswan and Hartanti, 1996) and across all of Southeast Asia, causing it to be outlawed at various times in almost every country in the region (Padoch and Coffey, 2003). The Vietnamese government has subscribed to this belief (Dang, 1991; Morrison and Dubois, 1998) and has repeatedly attempted to prohibit its practice through a major program intended to ‘sedentarize’ upland populations (Tran, 2003). ...
“... Despite heavy expenditures, it is believed that this program has enjoyed little success, because it is unable to provide the swiddeners with alternative methods of earning livelihoods that are commercially viable, culturally acceptable, and ecologically sustainable (Tran, 1998).”

References:

Dang Nghiem, Van., 1991. La culture sure brulis et le nomadisme. Etudes Vietnamiennes 1 (99), 16–28.

Fox, J., Truong, D.M., Rambo, A.T., Tuyen, N.P., Cuc, L.T., Leisz, S., 2000. Shifting cultivation: a new old paradigm for managing tropical forests. Bio-Science 50, 521–528.

Morrison, E., Dubois, O., 1998. Sustainable livelihoods in upland Vietnam: land allocation and beyond Forestry and Land Use Series, 14. International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), London, England, pp. 64.

Myers, N., 1993. Tropical forests: the main deforestation fronts. Environmental Conservation 20, 9– 16.

Padoch, C., Coffey, K., 2003. Monitoring the demise of swidden in Southeast Asia: local realities and regional am biguities. In: Mertz, O., Wadley, R., Christensen, A.E., (Eds.), Local Land Use Strategies in a Globalizing World: Shaping Sustainable Social and Natural Environments. Proc. Int. Conference August 21–23, 2003, vol. 1. DUCED SLUSE, Institute of Geography, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, pp. 103–124.

Riswan, R., Hartanti, L., 1996. Human impacts on tropical forest dynamics. Vegetatio 121, 41–52.

Tachibana, T., Nguyen, T.M., Otsuka, K., 2001. Agricultural intensification versus extensification: A case study of deforestation in the northern-hill region of Vietnam. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 41, 44–69.

Tran, D., 2003. The Farm Economy in Vietnam. The Gioi Publishers, Hanoi.

Tran, D.V., 1998. Soil erosion and nutrient balance in swidden fields of the composite swiddening agroecosystem in the Northwestern mountains of Vietnam. In: Patanothai, A. (Ed.), Land Degradation and Agricultural Sustainability: Case Studies from Southeast and East Asia. Regional Secretariat The Southeast Asian Universities Agroecosystem Network (SUAN), Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand, pp. 65–84

Question 3: Is there a logic to the sequence of the sentences in the paragraph?

Read the paragraph of the article again:

“In large areas of the uplands, swidden agriculture (also known as slash-and-burn or shifting cultivation) is thought to constitute the most serious threat to the natural environment (Fox et al., 2000; Tachibana et al., 2001). This viewpoint is found in many places throughout the world (Myers, 1993; Riswan and Hartanti, 1996) and across all of Southeast Asia, causing it to be outlawed at various times in almost every country in the region (Padoch and Coffey, 2003). The Vietnamese government has subscribed to this belief (Dang, 1991; Morrison and Dubois, 1998) and has repeatedly attempted to prohibit its practice through a major program intended to ‘sedentarize’ upland populations (Tran, 2003). ...
“... Despite heavy expenditures, it is believed that this program has enjoyed little success, because it is unable to provide the swiddeners with alternative methods of earning livelihoods that are commercially viable, culturally acceptable, and ecologically sustainable (Tran, 1998).”

Question: Is there a logic to the sequence of the sentences in the paragraph?

- Yes
Feedback: The paragraph has a clear logic to it. It starts with a statement; the problem of 'slash-and-burn' argiculture in Vietman. Next it says something about the size of the problem; it is not just a problem in Vietnam, but a problem in the whole of Southeast Asia and other parts of the world. Then attention goes back to Vietnam and how the government is dealing with the problem. In the last sentence something is said about the results of the approach of the government. So it builds up like this: 1. What is the problem? 2. How big is the problem? 3. What is done about the problem? 4. What are the results of the chosen approach/solution? So the sequence of the sentences build the argument: viewpoint → action → consequences of that action. The reader is now prepared for the next paragraph and its topic sentence: “The composite swiddening agriculture system is an alternative farming system that appears to overcome these problems.”
- No
Feedback: The paragraph has a clear logic to it. It starts with a statement; the problem of 'slash-and-burn' argiculture in Vietman. Next it says something about the size of the problem; it is not just a problem in Vietnam, but a problem in the whole of Southeast Asia and other parts of the world. Then attention goes back to Vietnam and how the government is dealing with the problem. In the last sentence something is said about the results of the approach of the government. So it builds up like this: 1. What is the problem? 2. How big is the problem? 3. What is done about the problem? 4. What are the results of the chosen approach/solution? So the sequence of the sentences build the argument: viewpoint → action → consequences of that action. The reader is now prepared for the next paragraph and its topic sentence: “The composite swiddening agriculture system is an alternative farming system that appears to overcome these problems.”

Linking words and phrases

In this last part we will take a look at linking words and phrases, also called connectives, and wrap up this lesson.

Linking words and prashes is a common way to show the flow of ideas within a paragraph – it emphasizes the coherence of the ideas. They explicitly draw the reader’s attention to the connection between sentences. So looking back at the example of 'slash-and-burn' argriculture you can use 'However' to start the next paragraph to indicated a contradiciton.

But be aware; the excessive use of linking words and phrases can lead to overly complicated sentence structures that may reduce clarity. You don't have to use a linking word to start each new sentence. Also be aware of repeating the same linking word multiple times close together. Sometimes without noticing you have written an entire paragraph or section where each sentence starts with 'Furthermore'. This can be very tiresome for your readers.

Example

Without connectives:
The guitar is ubiquitous in popular music. This was not always the case. The guitar has a long history. Before the early part of the 20th century it was hardly used. Popular music was accompanied by the piano.

With connectives:
The guitar is ubiquitous in popular music. However, this was not always the case. Although the guitar has a long history, until the early part of the 20th century it was hardly used. Instead, popular music was accompanied by the piano.

The use of the linking words gives the paragraph a better 'flow' and makes it easier and more pleasant to read. There is a clearer connection between the sentences and the information they contain.

Common linking words and phrases

in addition | also | similarly | further(more)
by contrast | however | despite | even though
thus | in this way | therefore | hence
on the one hand | on the other hand | first(ly) | second(ly)
initially | later | during | finally
because (of) | as a consequence (of) | since | as a result
assuming that | presuming that | supposing that | consequently
with respect to | with regard to | considering | regarding
fortunately | unfortunatley | by coincidence | incidentally
still | nonetheless | and yet | nevertheless
in short | in summary | in conclusion | to summarize
surprisingly | to our surprise | as expected | unsurprisingly

When choosing your linking words and phrases, think about parallelism. When you start a paragraph or sentence with 'Firstly', it has to be followed by 'Secondly' and 'Thirdly' etc. You don't start with 'Firstly' and then use 'However' for example. It is important that the linking words and phrases you uses have a certain parallel and logic to them. So if you start writing; On the one hand, it will be followed by; On the other hand. So be aware of the words you choose and don't just use them randomly.

Conclusion

Wrapping up

The purpose of technical writing is to communicate information to the reader in a compact, clear, and efficient manner. This has three aspects:
1. Structure of the technical writing
2. Argumentation
3. Proper use of the (English) language

Suggestions

- Write often; Practice

- Structure your thoughts and text; See if outlining works for you

- Read books and follow (online) courses on technical writing e.g.,

- On writing well: The classic guide to writing nonfiction by William Zinsser (2006)
- https://www.coursera.org/learn/sciwrite
- https://www.coursera.org/lecture/scholarly-communication/golden-rules-of-scientific-writing-uRjga

*With thanks to Chris Hecker (University of Twente) for (part of) the content.